POLAND - A Country Study

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• POLAND
• Foreword
• ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
• PREFACE
• Chronology of Important Events
• COUNTRY PROFILE
  • Country
  • GEOGRAPHY
  • SOCIETY
  • ECONOMY
  • TRANSPORTATION
  • GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
  • NATIONAL SECURITY
• INTRODUCTION
• Chapter 1. Historical Setting
  • EARLY HISTORY UNTIL 1385
    • The Origins of Poland
    • The Medieval Era
      • Fragmentation and Invasion, 1025-1320
      • The Later Piasts
    • Integration into European Civilization
  • THE JAGIELLON ERA, 1385-1572
    • The Polish-Lithuanian Union
    • The "Golden Age" of the Sixteenth Century
      • Poland-Lithuania as a European Power
      • The Government of Poland-Lithuania
      • Poland-Lithuania in the Reformation Era
      • The Polish Renaissance
      • The Eastern Regions of the Realm
  • THE NOBLE REPUBLIC, 1572-1795
    • The Elective Monarchy
    • The Deluge, 1648-67
    • Decay of the Commonwealth
    • The Three Partitions, 1764-95
      • First Partition
      • National Revival
      • Destruction of Poland-Lithuania
  • PARTITIONED POLAND
    • The Napoleonic Period
    • The Impact of Nationalism and Romanticism
    • The Era of National Insurrections
    • The Time of "Organic Work"
    • Social and Political Transformation
  • INDEPENDENCE WON AND LOST, 1914-45
    • World War I
      • War and the Polish Lands
      • Recovery of Statehood
    • Interwar Poland
      • Formative Years, 1918-21
      • From Democracy to Totalitarianism
      • Poland's International Situation
    • World WarII
      • The Outbreak of War
      • German and Soviet Rule
      • Resistance at Home and Abroad
      • Soviet Liberation of Poland
  • THE POLISH PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC
    • Consolidation of Communist Power
    • From Stalinism to the Polish October
    • The Gathering Crisis of People's Poland, 1956-80
      • The Gomulka Years
      • Consolidation of the Opposition in the 1970s
    • The Birth of Solidarity
    • The Jaruzelski Interlude
      • Martial Law
      • Poland at an Impasse
      • Collapse of the Communist Regime
      • Toward the Round-Table Talks
    • The 1989 Elections and Their Aftermath
• Chapter 2. The Society and Its Environment
  • PHYSICAL SETTING
    • Topography
    • Drainage
    • Climate
  • ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION
    • Environmental Conditions and Crises
    • Environmental Groups
    • Government Environmental Policy
  • DEMOGRAPHY
    • Languages
    • Population Growth and Structure
    • Population Density and Distribution
  • THE SOCIAL ORDER
    • Ethnic Groups
      • Jews
      • Germans
      • Ukrainians and Belarusians
      • Gypsies
    • The Intelligentsia
    • The Working Classes
      • Agricultural Workers
      • Industrial Workers
    • Social Relationships
    • The Role of Women
  • HOUSING
    • Communist Housing Policy
    • Polish Housing in Practice
    • Housing after 1989
  • RELIGION
    • The Polish Catholic Church and the State
      • Church and State Before 1945
      • The Early Communist Decades
      • Relations in the 1970s and 1980s
      • Church and State after 1989
    • The Polish Catholic Church and the People
    • Other Churches
      • The Greek Catholic Church
      • The Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession
      • The Old Catholic Churches
      • The Polish Ecumenical Council
  • EDUCATION
    • The Education Tradition
    • Eras of Repression
    • The Drive for Education Reform
    • Structure of the Education System
  • HEALTH AND WELFARE
    • Health Conditions
    • The Health Care System
    • Health Issues
      • AIDS
      • Narcotics
      • Alcoholism
    • The Welfare System
      • Structural Change
      • Welfare Benefits
• Chapter 3. The Economy
  • NATURAL RESOURCES
    • Minerals and Fuels
    • Agricultural Resources
    • Labor Force
  • THE ECONOMY UNDER THE COMMUNIST SYSTEM
    • System Structure
    • Development Strategy
  • DEVELOPMENT OF THE CENTRALLY PLANNED ECONOMY
    • Establishing the Planning Formula
    • Retrenchment and Adjustment in the 1960s
    • Reliance on Technology in the 1970s
    • Reform Failure in the 1980s
  • AFTER THE FALL OF THE COMMUNIST SYSTEM
    • Marketization and Stabilization
      • Required Short-Term Changes
      • The Shock Strategy
      • Initial Results
      • Long-Term Requirements
    • Macroeconomic Indicators for 1990-91
      • Price Increases
      • Impact on Productivity and Wages
      • Statistical Distortions
      • Agricultural Imbalances
      • Causes of Decline
    • The External Balance of the Economy
    • The Privatization Process
    • Economic Policy Making in the 1990s
  • STRUCTURE OF THE ECONOMY
    • Fuels and Energy
      • Coal
      • Oil and Gas
      • Power Generation
    • Extractive and Manufacturing Industries
      • Light Industry
      • Automotive Industry
      • Construction Machinery
      • Shipbuilding
    • Agriculture
      • Organization under State Planning
      • Private and State Farms
      • Postcommunist Restructuring
    • Fishing and Forestry
      • Fishing
      • Forestry
    • Transportation and Communications
    • Banking and Finance
      • The State Banking System
      • Banking Reform, 1990-92
      • Insurance and Securities Reform
      • New Financial Institutions
      • Foreign Loans and Money Supply
  • FOREIGN TRADE
    • The Foreign Trade Mechanism
    • Postcommunist Policy Adjustments
      • The End of the Soviet Era
      • The Role of Currency Exchange
    • Foreign Investment
  • ECONOMIC PROSPECTS
• Chapter 4. Government and Politics
  • POLITICAL SETTING
    • The Round Table Agreement
    • The Mazowiecki Government
    • Popular Election of a President
    • The Bielecki Government
    • The Parliamentary Elections of October 1991
    • The Olszewski Government
    • The Pawlak Interlude
    • The Suchocka Government
  • THE CONSTITUTION
    • The Constitution of 1952
    • Constitutional Revisions after April 1989
  • GOVERNMENT STRUCTURE
    • Presidency
    • Sejm
    • Senate
    • Supreme Control Chamber
    • Council of Ministers
    • Regional and Local Government
    • Judicial System
      • The National Judicial Council
      • The Supreme Court
      • Lower Courts
      • The Supreme Administrative Court
      • The Constitutional Tribunal
      • The State Tribunal
      • The Prosecutor General
      • The Commissioner for Citizens' Rights
  • POLITICAL PARTIES
    • Solidarity
    • Center Alliance
    • Democratic Union
    • Liberal-Democratic Congress
    • Beer-Lovers' Party
    • Peasant Alliance
    • Christian National Union
    • Party of Christian Democrats
    • Confederation for an Independent Poland
    • PZPR and Successor Parties
    • Polish Peasant Party
  • POLITICS AND THE MEDIA
    • The Early Opposition Press
    • Liberalization in the 1980s
    • The End of Press Censorship
    • Book Publishing
    • Radio and Television
  • FOREIGN RELATIONS
    • Soviet Union and Russia
    • Other Former Soviet Republics
      • Baltic States
      • Belarus
      • Ukraine
      • Southern Neighbors and the Visegrád Triangle
    • Germany
    • The United States
    • Other Western Countries
    • International Organizations
• Chapter 5. National Security
  • DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARMED FORCES
    • From Medieval Times to World War I
    • The Interwar Years
    • World War II
    • The Communist Era
      • Postwar Consolidation
      • Defining the Military's Postwar Role
      • Martial Law
      • Transition and Reform
  • NATIONAL SECURITY POLICY
    • Threat Perception
    • Military Doctrine
    • Strategy and Tactics
    • Military Cooperation and Exchanges
  • DEFENSE ORGANIZATION
    • The Communist Tradition
    • Evolution and Restructuring
      • Civilian Command Structure
      • Military Command Structure
      • The Military Prosecutor
      • Lines of Authority
    • National Security Agencies
    • Armed Services
      • Ground Forces
      • Navy
      • Air and Air Defense Forces
      • Territorial Defense Forces
  • MILITARY MANPOWER
    • The Military and Society
    • Recruitment and Service Obligations
    • Military Training and Education
      • Conscript Training
      • Officer Education
      • Reserves and Mobilization
  • DEFENSE AND THE NATIONAL ECONOMY
    • Military Budget
    • Arms Procurement
      • Arms Imports
      • Domestic Arms Production
      • Arms Exports
  • LAW AND ORDER
    • Internal Security
      • Security Service
      • Militia Forces
      • Border Troops
    • Crime
    • Penal System
    • Under Communism
      • Postcommunist Reform
• Appendix. Tables
• Bibliography
• Glossary