SOVIET UNION - A Country Study

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• SOVIET UNION
• Foreword
• ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
• Preface
• Table A. Chronology of Important Events
• COUNTRY PROFILE
  • COUNTRY
  • GEOGRAPHY
  • SOCIETY
  • POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT
  • ECONOMY
  • SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY:
  • TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATIONS
  • NATIONAL SECURITY
• Introduction
• Chapter 1. Historical Setting: Early History to 1917
  • EMERGENCE OF THE EAST SLAVS
    • The Peoples of the East European Plain
    • The East Slavs and the Varangians
    • The Golden Age of Kiev
    • The Rise of Regional Centers
    • The Mongol Invasion
  • MUSCOVY
    • The Rise of Muscovy
    • The Evolution of Russian Autocracy
    • Ivan IV
    • The Time of Troubles
    • The Romanovs
    • Expansion and Westernization
  • EARLY IMPERIAL RUSSIA
    • Peter the Great and the Formation of the Russian Empire
    • Era of Palace Revolutions
    • Imperial Expansion and Maturation: Catherine II
  • RULING THE EMPIRE
    • War and Peace, 1796-1825
    • Period of Reaction: Nicholas I, 1825-55
  • THE TRANSFORMATION OF IMPERIAL RUSSIA
    • Economic Developments
    • Reforms and Their Limits, 1855-92
    • Foreign Affairs after the Crimean War, 1856-93
    • The Age of Realism in Literature
    • The Rise of Revolutionary Populism and Russian Marxism, 1855- 90
    • Serge Witte and Accelerated Industrialization, 1891-1903
    • The Development of Radical Political Parties, 1892-1904
    • Imperialism in Asia and the Russo-Japanese War, 1894-1905
  • THE LAST YEARS OF TSARDOM
    • The Revolution of 1905 and Counterrevolution, 1905-07
    • The Tenuous Regimes of Stolypin and Kokovstev, 1907-14
    • The Return to an Active Balkan Policy, 1906-13
    • Russia at War, 1914-16
    • The Strains of the War Effort and the Weakening of Tsarism
• Chapter 2. Historical Setting: 1917 to 1982
  • REVOLUTIONS AND CIVIL WAR
    • The February Revolution
    • The Period of Dual Power
    • The Bolshevik Revolution
    • Civil War and War Communism
  • THE ERA OF THE NEW ECONOMIC POLICY
    • Lenin's Leadership
    • Stalin's Rise to Power
    • Foreign Policy, 1921-28
    • Society and Culture in the 1920s
  • TRANSFORMATION AND TERROR
    • Industrialization and Collectivization
    • The Period of the Purges
    • Mobilization of Society
    • Foreign Policy, 1928-39
  • WAR YEARS
    • Prelude to War
    • The Great Patriotic War
  • RECONSTRUCTION AND COLD WAR
    • Reconstruction Years
    • The Cold War
    • Death of Stalin
  • THE KHRUSHCHEV ERA
    • Collective Leadership and the Rise of Khrushchev
    • Foreign Policy under Khrushchev
    • Khrushchev's Reforms and Fall
  • THE BREZHNEV ERA
    • Collective Leadership and the Rise of Brezhnev
    • Foreign Policy of a Superpower
    • The Economy
    • Culture and the Arts
    • Death of Brezhnev
• Chapter 3. PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT AND POPULATION
  • PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
    • Global Position and Boundaries
    • Administrative-Political-Territorial Divisions
    • Topography and Drainage
    • Climate
    • Natural Resources
    • Environmental Concerns
  • POPULATION
    • Vital Statistics
    • Age and Sex Structure
    • Mortality and Fertility
    • Urbanization
    • Migration
    • Distribution and Density
    • Marriage, Divorce, and the Family
    • Population Problems and Policies
• Chapter 4. Nationalities and Religions
  • NATIONALITIES OF THE SOVIET UNION
    • Slavic Nationalities
      • Russians
      • Ukrainians
      • Belorussians
      • Other Slavs
    • Baltic Nationalities
      • Lithuanians
      • Latvians
      • Estonians
    • Nationalities of the Caucasus
      • Armenians
      • Georgians
      • Azerbaydzhanis
      • Other Nationalities of the Caucasus
    • Central Asian Nationalities
      • Uzbeks
      • Kazakhs
      • Kirgiz
      • Tadzhiks
      • Turkmens
    • Other Major Nationalities
      • Moldavians
      • Tatars
      • Jews
      • Chuvash
      • Bashkirs
      • Mordvins
      • Germans
      • Others
  • RELIGIOUS GROUPS IN THE SOVIET UNION
    • Orthodox
      • Russian Orthodox Church
      • Georgian Orthodox Church
      • Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church
    • Armenian Apostolic
    • Catholic
      • Roman Catholic Church
      • Ukrainian Catholic Church
    • Protestant
    • Muslim
  • POLICY TOWARD NATIONALITIES AND RELIGIONS IN PRACTICE
  • MANIFESTATIONS OF NATIONAL ASSERTIVENESS
    • Baltic Nationalities
    • Armenians
    • Ukrainians
    • Central Asian Nationalities
    • Russians
    • Other Nationalities
• Chapter 5. Social Structure
  • FORMATION OF SOVIET SOCIETY
  • STRATIFICATION OF SOVIET SOCIETY
    • Socio-Occupational Groupings
      • The Elite
      • White-Collar Workers
      • Blue-Collar Workers and Manual Laborers
      • Agricultural Workers
    • Other Determinants of Social Position
      • Education
      • Party Membership
      • Nationality
    • Benefits of Social Position
      • Monetary Compensation
      • Noncash Benefits and Access to Goods and Services
      • Occupational Prestige
    • Urban-Rural Cleavage
      • Differences in Life-Styles
      • Structure of Rural Society
      • Decreasing Social Differences
  • SOCIAL MOBILITY
  • SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS
    • Trade Unions
    • Youth Organizations
    • Sports Organizations
  • GENDER AND FAMILY ROLES
    • Role of Women
    • Male-Female Relationships
      • Marriage
      • Roles in Marriage
      • Divorce
      • Sex and Contraception
    • The Soviet Family
      • Evolution of the Soviet Family
      • Family Size
      • Family and Kinship Structures
      • Function of Family
• Chapter 6. Education, Health, and Welfare
  • EDUCATION
    • Philosophy and Aims
    • Control and Administration
    • Pedagogy and Planning
    • Institutions of Learning
      • Preschool
      • Secondary Education
      • Special Education
      • Higher Education
      • Teacher Training
    • Quality, Reform, and Funding
  • HEALTH CARE
    • Provision of Medical Care
    • Declining Health Care in the 1970s and 1980s
  • WELFARE
    • Pension System
    • Workers' Compensation
    • Other Assistance
• Chapter 7. The Communist Party
  • LENIN'S CONCEPTION OF THE PARTY
    • Theoretical Underpinnings
    • Democratic Centralism
  • PARTY LEGITIMACY
  • CENTRAL PARTY INSTITUTIONS
    • Party Congress
    • Party Conference
    • Central Committee
    • Central Auditing Commission
    • Party Control Committee
    • Politburo
    • Secretariat
    • Commissions
    • General Secretary: Power and Authority
  • INTERMEDIATE-LEVEL PARTY ORGANIZATIONS
    • Republic Party Organization
    • Oblast-Level Organization
    • District- and City-Level Organization
  • PRIMARY PARTY ORGANIZATION
  • NOMENKLATURA
    • The Party's Appointment Authority
    • Patron-Client Relations
  • PARTY MEMBERSHIP
    • Selection Procedures
    • Training
  • SOCIAL COMPOSITION OF THE PARTY
• Chapter 8. Government Structure and Functions
  • CONSTITUTIONAL AUTHORITY OF GOVERNMENT
    • Early Soviet Constitutions
      • The 1918 Constitution
      • The 1924 Constitution
      • The 1936 Constitution
    • The 1977 Constitution
      • Amendments to the 1977 Constitution
      • Amendment Process
      • Constitutional Rights
      • Role of the Citizen
      • State Symbols
  • CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
    • Administrative Organs
      • Council of Ministers
      • Chairman of the Council of Ministers
      • Council of Ministers Presidium
      • Ministerial System
      • Party Control of the Ministerial Apparatus
    • Congress of People's Deputies
      • Elections to the Congress of People's Deputies
      • Deputies and Citizen Involvement
    • Supreme Soviet
      • Organs of the Supreme Soviet
      • Presidium
      • Chairman
      • Soviet of the Union and Soviet of Nationalities
      • Sessions of the Supreme Soviet
      • Commissions and Committees
      • Legislative Process
      • Party Controls
    • Control Organs
      • Court System
      • Procuracy
      • Committees of People's Control
      • Law
  • TERRITORIAL ADMINISTRATION
    • Republic Level
      • Legal Status
      • Government
    • Provincial and District Levels
  • ELECTIONS
• Chapter 9. Mass Media and the Arts
  • POLITICIZATION OF THE MASS MEDIA AND THE ARTS
    • Leninist Principles
    • Socialist Realism
  • ADMINISTRATION OF THE MASS MEDIA AND THE ARTS
    • The Party Role
    • The Government Role
  • THE MASS MEDIA
    • Newspapers
    • Magazines and Journals
    • Radio
    • Television and Video Cassette Recorders
    • Computers
  • THE ARTS
    • Literature
    • Cinema
    • Theater
    • Music
    • Painting, Sculpture, and the Graphic Arts
• Chapter 10. Foreign Policy
  • IDEOLOGY AND OBJECTIVES
  • FOREIGN POLICY MAKING AND EXECUTION
    • The Foreign Policy Makers
    • Departments of the Central Committee
    • Higher State and Government Organizations
    • The Congress of People's Deputies and the Supreme Soviet
    • The Council of Ministers and Its Presidium
    • The Ministry of Foreign Affairs
  • INSTRUMENTS OF INFLUENCE
    • Diplomatic Relations
    • Party and State Visits Abroad
    • Friendship and Cooperation Treaties
    • Communist Parties Abroad
  • SOVIET-UNITED STATES RELATIONS
  • SOVIET-WEST EUROPEAN RELATIONS
    • France
    • West Germany
    • Britain
    • Spain and Portugal
    • Scandinavia
  • SOVIET-EAST EUROPEAN RELATIONS
  • SINO-SOVIET RELATIONS
  • SOVIET-JAPANESE RELATIONS
  • THE SOVIET UNION AND THE THIRD WORLD
    • The Middle East and North Africa
      • Turkey
      • Iran and Iraq
      • Other Middle Eastern States
    • Asia
      • Afghanistan
      • India
      • Southeast Asia
    • Sub-Saharan Africa
      • Angola
      • Ethiopia
      • Mozambique
    • Central and South America
  • THE SOVIET UNION AND NUCLEAR ARMS CONTROL
  • THE SOVIET UNION AND THE UNITED NATIONS
• Chapter 11. Economic Structure and policy
  • ECONOMIC STRUCTURE
    • Nature of the National Economy
    • Labor
    • Retail and Wholesale Distribution System
    • Financial System
  • ECONOMIC PLANNING AND CONTROL
    • Planning Process
    • Reforming the Planning System
    • Tools of Control
  • ECONOMIC POLICY
    • Past Priorities
    • The Twelfth Five-Year Plan, 1986-90
• Chapter 12. Industry
  • DEVELOPMENT OF SOVIET INDUSTRY
  • INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES
    • Raw Materials
    • Geographic Location Factors
    • The Territorial Production Complexes and Geographic Expansion
    • The Labor Force and Perestroika
  • INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATION
    • The Complexes and the Ministries
    • The Industrial Planning System
    • Structural Reform of Industry
    • The Military-Industrial Complex
    • Industrial Research and Design
  • MACHINE BUILDING AND METAL WORKING
    • The Structure and Status of the Machine-Building and Metal- Working Complex
    • The Planning and Investment Process of the Machine-Building and Metal-Working Complex
    • The Location of the Machine-Building Industry
    • The Automotive Industry
    • The Electronics Industry
  • METALLURGY
    • Role of Metallurgy
    • Metallurgy Planning and Problems
    • Metallurgical Combine Locations and Major Producers
    • Nonferrous Metals
  • CHEMICALS
    • Plastics
    • Petrochemicals
    • Other Branches of the Chemical Industry
    • Chemical Planning Goals
  • FUELS
    • Fuel Resource Base
    • Oil
    • Natural Gas
    • Coal
    • Uranium
  • POWER ENGINEERING
    • Energy Planning Goals
    • The Balance among Energy Sources
    • Obstacles to Power Supply
    • Heat and Cogeneration
  • THE CONSUMER INDUSTRY
    • Consumer Supply in the 1980s
    • The Logic and Goals of Consumer Production
    • Textiles and Wood Pulp
• Chapter 13. Agriculture
  • POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION
    • Stalin's Legacy
    • Evolution of an Integrated Food Policy
  • LAND USE
  • PRODUCTION
    • Grain
    • Technical Crops
    • Forage Crops
    • Potatoes and Vegetables
    • Other Crops
    • Animal Husbandry
    • Forestry
    • Fishing
    • The Twelfth Five-Year Plan, 1986-90
• Chapter 14. Transportation and Communications
  • RAILROADS
    • Historical Background, 1913-39
    • World War II
    • The Postwar Period, 1946-60
    • Organization and Equipment of the Railroads
    • Passenger Operations
    • The Baykal-Amur Main Line
    • Other New Construction
    • Metropolitan Railways
  • AUTOMOTIVE TRANSPORT
    • Development of Automotive Transport
    • Freight Transportation by Trucks
    • Passenger Transportation
  • INLAND WATERWAYS
    • Development of Waterways
    • The Waterway System
    • River Ports and Facilities
    • Passenger Transportation
  • MERCHANT MARINE
    • Initial Developments
    • Fleet Operations
  • CIVIL AVIATION
    • Postwar Evolution of the Air Fleet
    • Aeroflot Operations
  • PIPELINES
  • COMMUNICATIONS
• Chapter 15. Foreign Trade
  • DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATE MONOPOLY ON FOREIGN TRADE
  • STRUCTURE OF THE FOREIGN TRADE BUREAUCARCY
    • Administration
    • Operation
    • Structural Reforms, 1986 to Mid-1988
  • TRADE WITH SOCIALIST COUNTRIES
    • The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
    • Yugoslavia
    • China
    • Cambodia, Laos, and North Korea
  • TRADE WITH WESTERN INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIES
    • The United States
    • Western Europe
    • Japan
    • Finland
  • TRADE WITH THIRD WORLD COUNTRIES
    • Balance of Trade
    • Composition of Trade
    • Africa, Asia, and Latin America
    • Countries of Socialist Orientation
    • Trade with the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
  • GORBACHEV'S ECONOMIC REFORMS
• Chapter 16. Science and Techology
  • EARLY DEVELOPMENT
  • THE ADMINISTRATION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
    • Policy Making
    • Planning
    • Financing
  • SCIENCE AND IDEOLOGY
  • RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT, AND PRODUCTION ORGANIZATIONS
  • SOVIET INNOVATION: PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS
  • TECHNOLOGY AND INFORMATION TRANSFER
  • MILITARY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
  • TRAINING
• Chapter 17. Military Doctrine and Strategic Concerns
  • MARXIST-LENINIST THEORY OF WAR
    • War as a Continuation of Politics
    • Laws of War
  • THE PARTY AND MILITARY DOCTRINE AND POLICY
    • Evolution of Military Doctrine
    • Military Doctrine in the Late 1980s
    • Doctrine and Weapons Programs
    • Military Policy of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
  • MILITARY SCIENCE
    • Laws of Armed Conflict
    • Principles of Military Art
    • Military Art
      • Military Strategy
      • Nuclear Strategy in the 1950s
      • The Sokolovskii Era, l962-68
      • New Strategic Options, l968-89
      • Operational Art
      • Tactics
  • STRATEGIC MISSIONS OF THE ARMED FORCES
    • Threat Assessments and Force Requirements
    • Offensive and Defensive Strategic Missions
    • Strategic Offense
      • Strategic Operation in a Theater of Military Operations
      • Strategic Defense
  • GLOBAL STRATEGIC CONCERNS
    • Force Projection on the Periphery
    • Military Presence in the Third World
  • ARMS CONTROL AND MILITARY OBJECTIVES
    • Strategic Arms Control
      • Averting a World War
      • Retaining a Capability to Fight and to Win
    • Objectives in Space
      • Negotiations
      • Soviet Space Weapons Development
    • Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Arms Control
      • Threat Reduction
      • Denuclearization of Europe
    • Conventional Arms Control
• Chapter 18. Armed Forces and Defense Organization
  • ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND COMBAT EXPERIENCE
  • STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP OF THE ARMED FORCES
    • Defense Council
    • Main Military Council
    • Ministry of Defense
    • General Staff
  • THE ARMED SERVICES
    • Strategic Rocket Forces
    • Ground Forces
      • Motorized Rifle Troops and Tank Troops
      • Rocket Troops and Artillery
      • Air Defense of Ground Forces
      • Chemical Troops, Engineer Troops, and Signal Troops
    • Air Forces
      • Strategic Air Armies
      • Frontal Aviation
      • Military Transport Aviation
    • Air Defense Forces
      • Antiaircraft Rocket Troops and Air Defense Aviation
      • Missile and Space Defenses
    • Naval Forces
      • Submarine Forces
      • Surface Forces
      • Naval Aviation
      • Naval Infantry
      • Coastal Defense Forces
    • Airborne Troops and Special-Purpose Forces
    • Rear Services
    • Civil Defense
    • Specialized and Paramilitary Forces
      • Internal Troops
      • Border Troops
  • TERRITORIAL ORGANIZATION OF THE ARMED FORCES
    • Military Districts
    • Fleets, Flotillas, and Squadrons
    • Groups of Forces Stationed Abroad
  • THE PARTY AND THE ARMED FORCES
    • Political-Military Relations
    • Military Representation in the Party
    • Party Control in the Armed Forces
  • MILITARY ECONOMICS
    • Defense Spending
    • Military Industries and Production
    • Military Technology
  • UNIFORMS AND RANK INSIGNIA
  • MILITARY MANPOWER
    • Premilitary Training
    • Conscripts
      • Life in the Soviet Armed Forces
      • Noncommissioned Officers
      • National Minorities in the Armed Forces
      • Women in the Armed Forces
    • Officers
    • Reserves and Wartime Mobilization
• Chapter 19. Internal Security
  • PREDECESSORS OF THE COMMITTEE FOR STATE SECURITY AND THE MINISTRY INTERNAL AFFAIRS
    • The Tsarist Period
    • Soviet Predecessor Organizations, 1917-54
  • THE SECURITY APPARATUS AND KREMLIN POLITICS
    • Khrushchev Period
    • After Khrushchev
    • Gorbachev Era
  • ORGANIZATION OF THE COMMITTEE FOR STATE SECURITY
    • Structure
    • Functions and Internal Organization
    • Party Control
    • Personnel
  • DOMESTIC SECURITY AND THE COMMITTEE FOR STATE SECURITY
    • Legal Prerogatives
    • Policy
    • Special Departments in the Armed Forces
  • THE FOREIGN INTELLIGENCE ROLE OF THE COMMITTEE FOR STATE SECURITY
    • Organization
    • Intelligence and Counterintelligence
    • Active Measures
    • Influence on Foreign Policy
  • THE MINISTRY OF INTERNAL AFFAIRS
    • Functions and Organization
    • Leadership
    • Control by the Party
  • THE MINISTRY OF INTERNAL AFFAIRS, THE JUDICIAL ORGANS, AND NONPOLITICAL CRIME
    • Socialist Legality
    • The Procuracy
    • Military Justice
    • The Judiciary and the Legal Profession
    • Legal Codes and Abuses of the System
    • Nonpolitical Crime and Punishment
  • INTERNAL SECURITY TROOPS
    • Border Troops of the Committee for State Security
    • Security Troops of the Committee for State Security
    • Internal Troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs
• Appendices
  • Appendix B. The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
  • Appendix C. The Warsaw Pact
• Bibliography
• Glossary